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- Modern city dwellers are scarcely aware of the costly and
- complex civil engineering works that lie beneath their streets.
- Bathtubs, kitchen sinks and flush toilets are considered
- absolute necessities for modern homes, yet few people have ever
- seen any part of the vast water supply and sewage systems that
- make them possible.
-
- The ancient Romans had the most highly developed water supply
- systems known before the nineteenth century, and the aqueducts
- they built are still used to carry water into towns and cities
- from distant lakes or reservoirs. After the fall of the Roman
- Empire, however, most urban populations in Europe began to
- depend on wells or nearby rivers and streams for their water.
- Since waste water was so often disposed of carelessly, these
- water sources were usually polluted. Diseases such as cholera
- and typhoid were spread mainly by contaminated water.
-
- As cities expanded, wells and rivers became even more polluted.
- The need for adequate and safe water supplies became more
- urgent. What is more, the limited sources available could seldom
- deliver enough water to extinguish the fires that occasionally
- broke out and consumed entire neighbourhoods or even cities.
-
- Today, running water is so much a part of our lives that we
- cannot imagine living without it. In the United States, each
- individual uses about 560 litres of water per day, directly or
- indirectly. Two hundred thousand litres are needed to produce
- the iron and steel in one automobile; 18 litres are used in the
- production of one litre of gasoline. Since flush toilets use 20
- litres of water per flush, they are usually the major water
- consumers in the home. The increased availability of water has
- led to increased consumption. Washing machines, water cooled
- air-conditioners, dish washers and swimming pools would not be
- nearly so common in our world without modem water supply and
- sewage systems.
-
- Urban water systems must have at least two networks of pipes:
- one for supply and another for drainage of both sewage and
- rainwater. City planners wishing to keep sewage separate from
- rain runoff water must design and build a third network of pipes.
-
- The supply network reaches out into the surrounding countryside
- for water from lakes and reservoirs. The water is transported to
- the city through underground aqueducts which may be several
- hundred kilometres long and up to 6 metres in diameter. If the
- reservoir is at a higher elevation than the city, the force of
- gravity carries the water along. Otherwise, it must be pumped.
- At the city's edge, the aqueduct delivers its load of water into
- a series of distribution reservoirs. In some cases, water from
- the aqueduct flows directly into water mains. These are the
- large distribution tunnels running beneath city streets. From
- these mains, the water is carried through smaller pipes into
- homes and businesses.
-
- The water brought into an urban area must be removed from it by
- means of a sewage system. The home drainage system empties water
- into street sewers, which then carry it through a larger sewer
- main to treatment plants or directly into a local body of water.
- Unfortunately, not all cities have sewage treatment systems.
- Nature itself can purify water if sufficient time is allowed,
- but cities have become so large in the past few centuries that
- natural purification processes have broken down. Nowadays, under
- ideal conditions, all urban sewage would be treated before it is
- returned to the same lakes and rivers that supply our fresh
- water. Where treatment plants do exist, the sewage is subjected
- to a purifying treatment and is then dumped into a nearby river,
- lake or ocean. The semisolid sludge which is a byproduct of
- sewage treatment is either burnt, used as fertilizer or
- landfill, or thrown into the ocean.
-
- Adequate water supply and disposal was once a problem facing
- almost every city of the world. Today, many cities have found
- satisfactory solutions. However, as urban populations grow, and
- more and more wastes are created, existing systems are put under
- increasing strain. Engineers, working with environmentalists,
- will be called upon to find new solutions in the years ahead.
-